Prashant Bhardwaj
Rohru-Shimla Himachal Pradesh -171223
bhardwaj_p123@hotmail.com
Discovering Himalaya, the land of God also known as Devbhumi has been a focal point of Vedic and Pauranic culture। Epics like Ramayana, Mahabharta, Vedas and Bhagvat Geeta have influenced the culture that flourished in the core of Himalayas since Vedic period। Ramayana tradition and its incorporation in the socio-culture of Himlalayas throws light on various modes and means by which the Ramyana tradition in the region has been kept alive by the inhabitants of this region since remote past।
The religious life in Himalayas was dominated by the elements of Shaivism, Vahsanavism, Bhuddism, Animism and Superstitions. Shahsi Shekar Sharma said in his ‘Oh My God’ Ramayana belongs to Vaisnava tradtion, but it treats Shiva as the highest Ishwara.[1]
1. Influence of Rama on the Folklore of Himalayan region
1.1. Songs
Folk song is backbone of folk tradition and life. Folk songs are taken as a source of evidence for the existence of socio-culture in any particular society and reveal their thoughts. Tradition belief rituals and customs have been realized and exhibited only by folk songs. Rama dominated these Himalayan folk songs in many ways. We can see the impact of Rama on Marriage, Sanskara, and festival songs.
1.1.1. Marriage Songs
The traditional wedding songs of Himachal and Kashmir region of Himalaya, in which allusion of the Rama-story may not be as frequent as that of Shiva and Krishna theme.[2] In the neighboring region of Shimla, Himachal, ladies have sung these songs from four to five days before marriage ceremony called Lehanna (yg.kk, Ladies Sungeet)
राम पहला सेहू मंगल भेज्यो गणपति द्वारे ३]
In the following song the Groom demanded new clothes from his Mama for the marriage, while he is being dressed up for the wedding
ओरु दो मामा जी कुर्तु मेरो
मेरा सिया बयोंदे जानो
कुर्तु तेरो मैं देयूं भांजा
हारें धर्मा मेरो
जनक रीशीया सिया स्यम्वारा
राम जी ले कान्गढ़ही लाई ४]
1.1.2. Sanskar Songs
An unending process, starts with cradle and ends with Grave called Sanskara analogous to Education have greater impact of Ramayana throughout the region of Himachal, Kashmir and Garwal[5] ranges of Himalaya. In the Kangra, Mandi, Bilaspur, Solan and Shimla region of Himachal the tradition of Sanskar songs is prevalent at the time of birth of a child. The Sanskara song of Kangra such as :
जन्मेया रघुपति राई नी रजा जन्मेया रघुपति राई
नगरेया चोट बजी ...............................................[६]
Sansakara songs of Mandi region of Himachal narrate Rama-Story during the days of Sutak.
दशरथा दा मैं पुत्र दाइए जी ओ दशरथा दा मैं पुत्र
रामचंद्र नाम से थो हाँ जी हाँ रामचद्र नाम से थो [७]
1.1.3. Festival Songs
These ballads sung by Turi( Caste who beats the Drum) on many major auspicious occasions like Diwali, Holi, Dashera, and Baisakhi. After one day of baisakhi
1.1.4. Braham Bhakti
Braham Bhakti or Braham hymn sung even today in ”char thahari (pkj Bgjh). It depicts the knowledge or Bhahkti about the Braham.This is mostly sung by Brahamins on auspicious occasion like marriage, Jagarann, Shivaratri erc. till late at night. The conversation of Sita and Hanumana in Braham-Bhakti is very popular and exciting.
सीता : कीदारे हौनुआ आओ रे किदारे हौनुआ आओ [८]
हनुमान : लंका पार से आओ रे लंका पार से आओ
राम रो हौलो चक्र फुला बाढ़ इये जाऊं रे [९]
सीता : फुला न जाए बाढ़ इये मेरेया हौनुआ बीरा रे
1.2. Lammann (a Couplet in Hindi)
1.2.1. Traditional Lammann
Lammaann is a pahari couplet dipicts story of Rama in different forms। Man or woman according to prevailing situation may comment Lammann.
जूना रानिये भौरी कौरू लो आस्रो तेरो
लोगू रे ओ मुल्का जियु दुहासु ओ 10]
2. Ramayana in the family life of Himalayan People
2.1. Sanskar
It is significant that Ram’s name is closely knit with the daily life of the Himalayan people. While giving bath to children, usually mother or any senior female member of the family will utter at the end; “Let Rama protects you; you blessed with hundred years of life”. One can also notice the Himalayan people saying the words “Hay Ram” when they hear any tragic incident or bad news. Thus Rama is invoked in time of trouble and this is a common usage. The above said words are not only knit with the life of people of north India, these words are also closely knit with the life of the people of south India.[11] Hence it is spirit of Sri Ram who unites north to the south.
2.2. Marriage System
Two Principal characteristics of the Aryan family, namely its joint structure and patriarchal organization are found in tact in the times of Ramayana[12], which is today even relevant in Himalayan Region. The Aryan family reckoned its descent from father to son;[13] daughters were invariably given in marriage to suitable husbands outside the family.
The members of the joint family generally lived under one roof partook of food that was cooked at one hearth, held property in common, Participated in common family worship and were related to each other as some particular type of kindred.[14]
Joint marriage system was prevalent in the time of Ramayana. One person can have more than one wives and a women can had more than one husband. King Dashratha had three Queens. We can see this tradition in Kinnaur and Sirmaur Districts of Himachal Pradesh, where joint family system is prevalent today. That is only region; they could sustain their population in a fixed ratio.
2.3. Family Relation
The Ramayana effect on family relation teaches Indians to perform their dharma. Each person must "stay in character" or "play his position." If each thing in the universe does its dharma, the universe functions smoothly. When people or things violate their dharma, things fall apart. People whole of the world especially in India consider Sri Ram as Loknayak. They consider Ram a good son, a good husband, and a good ruler. The person who violates the Dharma of good husband and good ruler, ultimately placed in the Hell. It is faith of Indian People, so they remained intact with preaches of the Ramayana. Bharat was a faithful and trustworthy younger brother. Sita was a faithful and loyal wife. Ravann a ruler of Lanka violate the dharma of a faithful husband and a good king. So every year the festival of Dashehra is celebrated all around the world including Himachal (Dashera of Kullu) in India to commemorate the victory of Sri Ram(Dharma) over Ravann(evil) on this day.
Ramayana affects Indian family in such a way, most of Indian commonly used words Ram-Ram to great each other, A person who feels restlessness says “mldks jke ¼vk$jke½ ugha jgk” mean he has no rest in his life[15], people join word Ram with his/her name. Even a person while dying usually says, “Hey Ram”. When Gandhi fell under the assassin’s bullet, he cried out ‘Ai Ram’ three times as the last words of life [16]. This depicts the influence of Ramayana on Himalayas even today. Very effective medicines called ‘Rambaan-Aushidhi’.[17]
There is no poetic story like Ramayana in the history of world that was so widely accepted by the people of the world We can found the book of Ramayana utmost in the house.Rahul Sakrityayan shares his experiences during his journey across Himalayas “When I reached at Burhakedar near to Gangottri I saw some versions of Ramayana with a Brahamin family where I have stayed for a night.”[18] People celebrate the birthday of Ram by playing Ram Lila on the stage, and treat many sacred places related toRamkatha as their pilgrimage.
3. Ramkatha in Himalaya
3.1. Traditional Ramkatha
The written form of pauranic story as prevalent should not be considered as unnatural, because Rama of Kinnaur region danced with Gachi(a long cloth used to gird the lion) and Topee (a special type of Hat) in Santhang(a festival).[19] One allegory regarding lining of squirrel is very popular. When Rama was constructing Rama-Setu to link Lanka a squirrel helped him, then Rama stretched his hand to bless the squirrel.
3.2. Lok-Gatha
Barlaj, Chokrha, Ramainn, Seeta-Harann, Rathaul[20] are famous ballads prevalent in Kashmir as well as in Himachal. Folk-Ballads is not literary composion. The Ballads of Jikrhi on Ramayana are more popular than Ramcharitmansa of Tulsidas in Kumaun region.[21]
3.3. Shanad (Jan-Shruti)
Oral commentary narrated by anecdotist is way to transform Rama Story from one generation to another prevalent in Himalayas. Pandit Dula Ram and Shri Ram[22] is famous anecdotist of Shimla area. The present model of Ramayana epic in this region is part of earlier folk-diction
4. Ramayana related Manuscripts and Documents in Himalaya
4.1. Pahari Tankri Ramayan
In the Himalayan region we found many rare documents Ramayana, Mahabharta and on Bhagwat Gita. Some are written in Devnagri scripts and other are in Tankri, Sharda and in Bhoti scripts also. I collected some of these rare documents from many sources of Himachal Pradesh. In these documents two documents are based on Ramayan. I named them as Pahari Tankri Ramayan.
The Pahari Tankri Ramayan came into light recently. The script of this Ramayan has been found with Sh. Brahmanand Bhardwaj, Vishnnatt of Village Batari P.O. Arhal Tehsil Rohru District Shimla Himachal Pradesh in its original form. Late Prof. S. K. Gupta and Prashant Bhardwaj assumes that DeviRam of Rampur Bushehr (Capital of Bushehr State, presently tehsil of Shimla District) copied it from the script of Goldar Hariman in 1756A.D. (Samvat1813)[23] This Ramayan story is based on Valmiki Ramayan. This is written in Tankri and Sharda script and used local dialect that was prevalent in 18th century in Himachal. This Ramayan document is in the form of Roll. This Roll is 89.1 Feet long (26.75metre) in length and 11’’ in breadth.
The Pahri Ramayana is only Ramayan found in this Region. This Ramayan is itself unique because it is only prose among all the scripts founded so far. This Ramayana consisted of only five Kands Ayodya Kanda to Yuddh kanda. Some researcher believes earlier Ramayana has only five kands. It is considered view of Weber[24] and Jacobi[25] and others that the genuine Ramayana consisted of only five books (II to VI). Book I and VIIth were added later on, in an attempt to reconstruct the beginning and the end.
4.2. Pothi
4.2.1. Dhankari Pothi
Thee manuscripts of Dhankari is available in its original form at the Sarhan of Simla region. This manuscript has explained Vedic context.
4.2.2. Ravin Ki Pothi(Manuscripts or Documents of Ravin Village)
This document is available in the temple of Ravin village of Rampur Busher.
4.2.3. Braham-Gyan Pothi
This Pothi comprises of five padas(in) like (i) Vishnu Pad, (ii) Ram Bhakti,
(iii) Hanuman-Sita Samwad (conversation), (iv) Krishana Bhakti, (v) Mata Bhakti (Offering Goddess Mangla)
4.3. Manuscript Sources
Comprehansive information regarding manuscripts wealth in Himalayas is not available at present. But there are many documents available with the individual. Some rare documents like Kab Manuscripts( Maha-Kavaya), Jain Manuscripts, Baudh Manuscripts, Tantra Manuscripts of Manniyatti (written by Sahdeva), Bhoti Manuscripts, Pabuchi, Chandwani, Pandwani and Bhatackshri Manuscripts are available in its original form. Some rare documents are available with Late Sh. Hari Prasad ‘Suman” and Late Sh. Chandramni families of Mandi in their personal collection. Dr. Shami Sharma, DR. Pratiyush Guleri, DR. Piyush guleri, Sh. Sansarpal Mrs. Saroj Parmar of Kangra and Dr. Neelmani Upadyaya, Pt. Bhwani Dutt Shastri of Mandi, Sh. Khoob Ram Khushdil Karadsu village of Kullu,[26] Pt. Pritam Ram and Pati Ram Tatiyana village of Sirmaur, Sh. Nand Lal Mahant and Sh Nand Kishore Sharma Raura Sector of Bilaspur have presered many rare documents in their personal archieves.Manuscript of Markandeya Purana of Sammavat 1847 has been found with Sh. Nand Kishore Sharma of Bilaspur has in its original form. There is huge collection of 48000 manuscripts available with Tabo Budhist monastery in their original form.
According to a survey made by National Manuscripts Mission we have 50 lacs manuscripts in India, 60000 manuscripts in European countries 1.5 lacs in South-East Asia, Approximately 10 lacs manuscripts are now recorded in catalogs and hand-lists belonging to 70 libraries. But according to another vogue idea we have around 12 Crore manuscripts available with individual, temples, monarch, dynasty etc. Among the above-mentioned manuscripts 67% are in Sanskrit, 25% are in other Indian languages, and 8% in Arabic/Persian/Tibetan.
In addition there are over 77 libraries outside India where major collection of manuscripts of Indian origin exist. Some of major libraries are :
Germany Preusiche States Bibliothek, Leipzig
Universitat Bibliothek, Marburg
Bayeriche staats Bibliothek, Munchen
Denmark Royal Library, Copenhagen
France Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris
United Kingdom British Library, London
Royal Asiatic Society, London
Bodleian Library, Oxford
Cambridge University Library, Cambridge
Nepal Darbar Library, Kathmandu
Pakistan Punjab University Library, Lahore
Sri Lanka Museum Library, Colombo[27]
5. Rama Sites and Temples in Himalaya
Himalaya is known as Devbhumi. Every village has temple and its own Devta. Some Ramayana sites of Himachal and Utranchal region of Himalaya are listed as under :
Name of the Site Temple Location Principal Deity
Raghunath Temple Kullu(famous for Kullu deshera) Ram
Raguveer Chamba Ram
Manikaran Ram temple Manikaran (Kullu) Ram
Vashishth and Ram temple Vashisht Kund, Mandi। Vashishth and Rama
Panchmuchi Ram Temple MundaGhat, Chail Ram with Five mouths
Jakoo Temple Shimla Hanuman
Tapovan Dharamsala Hanuman
SankatMochan Shimla Hanuman
Chaurasi Temple Bharmaur, Chamba Ram, Sita
Ram Tirtha, Saumitra Tirtha Mayapur, Kankhal Ram, Laxman
Ram Temple Dev Prayag Garhwall Utrancahl Ram
Laxmaneshwar Laxmankund Rishikesh Laxman
Hanumat sheela, Ramasharm, Hanuman
Hanumankund Rishikesh Ram
Shatrughan Mandir Rishikesh Shatrughan
Ramasharm Ramkund Devprayag Ram
Ramdeepeshwar Raghunath Mandir Devprayag Ram
Laxman Mandir Devprayag Laxman
Hanuman Mandir Devprayag Hanuman
Sita Bidakuti Devprayag Sita
Sita Mandir Muchhyali (Dev.pray.) Sita
Ram Mandir Karnaprayag Ram
Hanuman Mandir Srinagar Hanuman
Adi Badri Hanuman मंदीर Chamoli Hanuman
Bendarkot Hanuman Mandir Uttarkashi Hanuman
Kedarnath Hanuman Mandir Kedarnath Hanuman
Raghunath Mandir Ghuttu (Tehri) Ram
Raghunath Mandir) Jaunsar Dehradun Ram
Balmiki Ashram Kotdwar, Pauri Garhwal Balmiki
Sita Mata Mandir Deval (Pauri) Sita
Laxman Mandir Mansar (Pauri) Laxman
[1] “Oh My God” by Sashi Shekar Sharma, Rupa Publication pp-332
[2] The Ramayana Tradition in Asia, by V. Raghavan, Sahitya Acedemi pp-535
[3] Somsi, July-September 2002, Himachal language and Culture Acedemy, pp-62
[4] Somsi, December 1998, Himachal language and Culture Acedemy, pp-
[5] Dr. D.P. Saklani, Impact of Ramayana on Himalayan Culture and Society
A paper presented at the International Ramayana Conference
Northern Illinois University, U.S.A. (Sept. 21-23 rd 2001)
[6] Sanskar Geet,by Siv kumar Upmanyu, Language and Culture Acedemy of Himachal Pradesh pp-170
[7] Sanskar Geet,by Siv kumar Upmanyu, Language and Culture Acedemy of Himachal Pradesh pp-197
[8] Pahari Lok Ramayan by Lal Chand Prarthi and Hari Ram Justa, Language and Culture Acedemy of Himachal Pradesh pp-88
[9] Himachal KI Lok Gathayen, by Jagdish Sharma, pp-35
[10] A discussion with Pt . Chain Ram Sharma of village Barla and Mr. Suresh Dhrupta of Raspuri Kanda, Rohru
[11] Ramayana in Telgu Literature and folklore” Paper presented by C.R. Sarma at the International Seminar on Ramayana Tradition in Asia New Delhi, December 1975.
[12] “Socil condition in The Ramayana” pp 36
[13] Vide the genealogies of Dashratha related by Vashistha in R.I 66/17-31 and of Janaka related by Himself in R. I 67/2-13.
[14] Cf. Karve, Iravati, Kinship organisation in India pp. 10.
[15] Rennaparker “Valmiki Ramayana ki Mahta aur Etihasikta “ Page 18
[16] The Ramayana” Elizabeth Seeger Author’s Introduction Page xiii
[17] “ Rennaparker “Valmiki Ramayana ki Mahta aur Etihasikta “ Page 14
[18] Meri Jeevan Yatra by Rahul Sankrityayan pp-97
[19] Himcahli Lok Sanskriti Ke Srot by Bansi Ram Sharma pp-
[20] Himchal Ki Lok-Gathayen by Jagdish Sharma pp-13
[21] Kumaun Ki Lok, Kala, Sanskriti and Paramapra by DR. Krishna Barathi and DR. Kush Satyendra
[22] Pt. Dula Ram Village Batara, and Pt. Shri Ram village Barla, Rohru , Shimla
[23] ”Pahari Ramayan “Documented by Prof. S. K. Gupta ( former Vice Chancellor of Himachal pradesh University Shimla) and Prashant Bhardwaj .
[24] Machdonell, “History of Sanskrit Literature”, pp 303-304
[25] Paurairanugato duram pitra Dasarathena Ca, Ramayana I. 1.25
[26] Vipasha, Jan-Feb2001 , by Dept of Language and Culture pp – 94,9
[27] Project document, National Mission for Manuscripts, Department of Culture Govt. of India pp-8, 9
Friday, May 30, 2008
Thursday, May 29, 2008
Hindu : Inter-religious Harmony with other Religions or Panthas
Hindu : Inter-religious Harmony with other Religions or Panthas
Prashant Bhardwaj
Rohru-Shimla Himachal Pradesh , India.
Email: bhardwaj_p123@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT[s1]
Hindu approach is clearly pluralistic, premised on equality of devotional principles, pantheistic, accommodative, tolerant and respectful of individual preferences and choices. Hindu approach to spiritual quests does not discriminate on the basis of class, colour, religion, caste, or gender. Hindu is truly multi-faceted and accepts the faiths and paths (called pantha) of all religions. This approach establishes communal harmony among panthas. Hindu tradition has regarded itself as a happy family of many Panthas and Sampradaayaas, which are pilgrimages in distinct way to realise a single Divine goal.
The recognition that multiple legitimate paths exist, by the Hindu approach, precludes the kinds of religious conflicts that have distinguished Abrahamic religions. While the "Panthas" followed different enlightened teachers and had different favored expressions (or “IshTa-devataas”) to relate with Reality (including agnostic and atheistic schools) these doctrinal disputes were more often dialogues in a process of deepening the understanding of Truth, than in the establishment of political hegemony. To assure that these doctrinal differences stayed within the limits of civil discourse, the Indian sages enunciated a vital corollary to the principle of One Truth most clearly:
“Sarva Dharma Samabhaava, Sarva Panth Sama-Aadara”
(Each one's dharma is of equal value, all paths are worthy of equal respect)
Keywords: Religious Harmony, Tolerance, Spiritual Enlightenment
Index Words: Nonvilance, Compassion, Humanity, Religion, Sampradaaya, Pantha
1. INTRODUCTION
Hinduism, we are told, is not a religion at all, but a way of life. In a way this is quite true. According to the tenets of Hinduism, life and religion are inseparable. Religion is every where, dominating and regulating every aspect of human life, infusing it with divine presence and making life more meaningful and purposeful to its followers.
In the Hindu, dharmic approach, conquests, conversions or continued conflicts are not the only options in an encounter with a new group of people or civilization. A dialogue of understanding is also a possibility. Thus we find in the dharmic history of India a multiplicity of dialogues within and between different individuals and panthas [1].
Hence the objective of Hindu approach is that living by one’s spiritual principles, one attains perfection, illumination, God vision, and liberation. Some of these spiritual principles are: truthfulness, purity, self-control, non-violence, forbearance, detachment, equality, straightforwardness, beauty, concern for others, compassion, love of God, and longing for spiritual enlightenment.
Though there are some core beliefs common to virtually all Hindus, there really is no "Hindu orthodoxy"--no hard and fast dogma that all Hindus must believe in. It's actually a family of gradually developing beliefs and practices.
There are no specifically laid out rules constricting a person's eating/drinking habits, or clothing style or something like that. In fact, it is on a much higher platform, where such petty things are irrelevant. It deals with the spiritual aspects of trying to understand God and to approach Him through many varied means (principal of which is love). As a natural fallout, it also shows how to lead a meaningful life full of bliss, peace and love.
Dharma sustains the society and maintains social order. Dharma in the Sanatan world of discourse was the perception of a set of board principles, which men and women intended to follow in the course of their journey through life. Dharma as the fundamental principle of conduct and as a way of life reflects in all stages and occupations of human existence by suggesting principles suited for every stage and station in life [2]. Dharma is not a Sanskrit equivalent of the English ‘religion’.
Prof. Arvind Sharma points out that the word ‘religion’ as used in the standard form carries three connotations[3]: -
1.Conclusive
2.Exclusionary and
3.Separative
But Indian concept of Dharma is very different from the notion of religion. These three notions give Abrahimic religions a hard-edged identity. Religions as a concept of monotheistic people says, “there is one ‘Ishwara’ and first join me on my path otherwise there is no salvation and you will go to Hell”.[4]
Who were the ancestors of the people of the world? Christianity is no more 2000 years old and Islam is no more 1500 years old. So what were we before 2000 years? What cults were opted by the people before 2000 years ago? We have to understand Aryan and Vedic civilisation.
Dharma is a composite of many analogous spiritual ways of many panthas and religiona; dharma establishes interconnectivity and develops harmonious relationships. It is like one’s ability to produce same musical notes using different instruments. Every religion is just like a musical instrument. Every instrument can produce Sa, Re, Gaa, Maa, Paa, Dha, ni, Sa. But can’t produce the same musical experience. Your way of worship would be different, your transmission media while communicating with God might be different, but you are going to convey the same message; the only difference is in your way of expression. Spiritual language is only one, but languages of different nations may be different[5]. Sanskrit stands out among all because of its technical and powerful way of expression based on Raga, Alankara, and Chandaa. Each Religion has atleast one authentic Religious book. Those who didn’t have such a literature have disappeared from the earth, for example, Egyptian religion. Literature is the strength of every religion; some times, it is the cause of conflicts also, because the followers of these religions believe that there religious book alone is “Brahmavakya” (word of God) and that other religions are false. Fanatic/ Dogmatic and Liberal are two varieties of persons seen in every religion.
2. Pluralism
Hindu believes in pluralism – that is, there are multiple paths to salvation and one chooses from the paths to salvation. Some times, pluralism in Hinduism seems like universalism in west. . A Hindu deity (god or goddess; note small g) represents a particular aspect of the Supreme Being. For example, Saraswati represents the learning and knowledge aspect of the Supreme Being. Thus, if a Hindu wants to pray for acquiring knowledge and understanding, he prays to Saraswati. Just as sunlight cannot have a separate and independent existence from the sun itself, a Hindu deity does not have a separate and independent existence from the Supreme Being. Thus, Hindu worship of deities is monotheistic pantheism and not simple polytheism. A Hindu is polytheistic and also monotheistic like Christianity and Islam. Buddhists of Himalayan region are polytheistic. Buddhist pray to Hindu deities and gods in the same manner as they venerate the Buddha. Hindu shows equal respect and faith to all. Freedom of equality and religion are fundamental rights in India since remote past. Equality is found incorporated in the Rigveda, the most ancient of the Vedas and also in the Atharvaveda.:
Ajeyeshthaso Akanishthas aite
Sam Brataro Wabridhooh Sobhagya [6]
Rigveda –Mandal 5, Sukta 60, Mantra-5
No one is superior or inferior. All are brothers. All should strive for the interest of all and should progress collectively.
3. How does Hinduism differ from other religions?
Hinduism differs from other organized religions in the following aspects:
•It is not based upon a particular founder.
•It is not based upon a particular book.
•A central institution or authority such as a church or an association does not control it.
•It is not averse to examine and assimilate fundamentally diverse thoughts and beliefs into its system.
•It accepts other religions as various paths to salvation and does not favor organized attempts to convert people.
•It has been evolving continuously, through internal reforms and as a reaction to threats and challenges.
Hindu religion is often labelled as a religion of 330 million gods. This misunderstanding arises when people fail to grasp the symbolism of the Hindu pantheon. According to the Hindu scriptures, living beings are not apart from God, since He lives in each and every one of them in the form of atman (BG 10.39). Thus each living being is a unique manifestation of God. In ancient times it was believed that there were 330 million living beings. This gave rise to the idea of 330 million deities or gods. Actually, this vast number of gods could not possibly have been worshipped, since 330 million names could not have been designed for them. The number 330 million was simply used to give a symbolic expression to the fundamental Hindu doctrine that God lives in the hearts of all living beings. [7]
4. Hindu vis-à-vis Panthas (Sikh)
In course of time a number of paths of worship – Panthas or sects came into existence in India. But they all followed Dharma which began to be describes as Manava Dharma because it was equally applicable to all human beings. Hindu dharma was first conceived by Hindus, the people of Hindustan. It provided the common link between all Panthas and prevented them from becoming exclusive or mutually antagonistic religions like Islam and Christianity. Hindu tradition has regarded itself as a happy family of many Panthas and Sampardayas that travel in mutual harmony in their own distinct way towards a single Divine goal. Travelers of path do not interfere with the travelers of other paths; on the contrary, they respect them as fellow pilgrims undertaking the same spiritual journey. Sikh, Jaina, Bauddha are the members of the same family on the path of Hinduism. Guru Gobind singh the founder of Khalsa Pantha, explains beautifully the link between Panthas or paths of worship and Dharma in the following words: -
‘Sakal Jagat mein Khalsa Panth Jage
Jage Dharma Hindu, Sakal Bhand Raje’
“ Let Khalsa Panth triumph in the world so that Hindu Dharma may prevail, and the misconduct may vanish”.
In an article published in “The Tribune April 22, 1990,Page-5, titled “Glory of Sikh psyche Guru Arjun Dev, Personification of Humanity” SS Bhatti writes about the magnificent contribution of Guru Arjun Dev.: “Guru Arjun Dev incorporated in the Adi Granth compositions of Muslim Sufis (mystics) like Sheikh Farid and Bhikam, along with those of the Bhakts (saints), the so called shudras such as Kabir, the weaver; Ravidas, the cobbler; Sain, the barber, and Sadhna, the butcher. Altogether sixteen such Bhaktas and suffis have been represented in the Holy Book (Guru Granth Sahib).”
Sikh thought was spread in Punjab and other parts of the western region of Hindustan, in the beginning of 15th century, by its first Guru Nanak Dev. Sikh Guru were concerned with the growing Islamisation and Muslim rule in this country. Guru Nanak considered God as Nirguna and Nirakara (without form). Guru Gobind Singh founded Khalsa Pantha (1699) in Punjab and started a Bhakti movement. Prior to him the saint had only sung songs in praise of God and chosen the peaceful path of routine family life, or of wandering monks. But Guru Gobind Singh’s message was that of Bhakti in action. He wielded the swords of Miri and Piri and sacrificed his own life and that of his sons to defend Hindu Dharma. His father Guru Teg Bahadur laid down his life to save the Kashmiri Pandits from Muslim persecution
5. Major Principles Of Sikhism
1.Believe in one almighty God
2.Meditate on God and recite his name for every possible second
3.Treat and consider all human races equal, no one is superior or inferior
4.Do not discriminate on the basis of class, colour, religion, caste, or gender.
5.Give women equal status and right.
6.Treat rich and poor with same respect
7.Not to cut hair, not to smoke, not to drink alcohol and say ‘no’ to drugs
8.Not to believe in superstition, witchcraft or black magic
Sikhism helps one to devote his life to God and attain salvation analogous to Hindus. They hold the principles in common with Hindus such as: -
1.Devotional attitude ( Puja, budhi) and fear.
2.Establishing a loving relationship with God
3.Merger and Unification with God, to become one with God.
Sikh Festivals: -All the major festivals, customs, rituals of Sikh are comparable to the Hindu’s. They celebrate all the festivals of Hindus like Baisakhi, Holi, Lohri, Deepawali, and Dashera and Guru Parva. Hindu people participate in their festivals like Gur Parva and pay respect to the Sikh gurus. Hindu and Sikh have common customs, rituals, culture and Sanskaara.
6. Christianity in India
There is no dispute that Asia has always been the land of Dharma. All the religions of the world including Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Bauddha, Jaina and many other ‘Panthas’ first sprouted and flourished on the Asian land.
It is the considered view of Dr. Giriraj Shah and many scholars have suggested that the introduction of Christianity dates back to those days when Jesus Christ visited India in pursuit of spiritual education. The authenticity of this statement is doubted; however, it certainly goes to show that Christianity had absorbed some spiritual background from India. [8]
The apostle St. Thomas is said to have first brought Christianity to Indian shore at Kodungallore (formerly Cranganore) in 52AD.[9] That makes Christianity in Kerala as old as in Rome, if not older. [10] The first Christians of Indian origin who came mostly from certain Hindu castes of Kerala, fostered and continued the eastern tradition of Christianity as was developed in Antioch and its neighboring regions in the so called Asia Minor. [11]
Deepak Chopra describes: “In the third century we are told that … Christianity was not recognized as official religion but seen as a cult, which could be prosecuted under the law (Oddly it was not the worship of Jesus Christ that offended the courts but the fact that Christianity was too new to be lawful)”.[12]
The theology of Christianity believes in the eternity of spirit. After the crucifixion, Jesus Christ resurrected. In the Bhagavad-Gita, Krishna says to Arjuna that one who thinks that he is dead when his body is dead does not know anything because the atman is perpetual. The atman comes into form again. Like the Bible, the Upnishads tell of God in the beginning creating men and women with his will to create. Like the Bible Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita give an explanation of the truths of life. Like the Bible the Purana literature tells of the birth of Krishna. The Birth of Krishna is not different from the birth of Jesus Christ.. Krishna in one interpretation is the God who will remove the sins of creatures and of the world. Krishna himself says in the Bhagavad-Gita that his incarnation in the world is to remove the sins and restore righteousness. His birth in that way was a big event on the earth and was anticipated by the people even before his birth.[13]
Yajurveda admonishes the same thing. [14]
Yatra Vishwam Bhawatyaik Neerham [15]
Christian Virtues of love and compassion are universal and not confined to Christianity only. Further the Lord’s Prayer says: Forgive us our trespasses as we forgive these that trespass against us. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from all evil”.
7. Hindu- Buddhist harmony (a special reference in Himalaya)
Roots of Buddhist Tradition: Inscriptions found at Tabo (Himachal), Kalsi, (Utranchal), Ambala, and Jalandhar reveal that Buddhist tradition influenced people living in the inner core of Himalaya and other adjoining areas of Himalaya. According to Huen-Tsang, during his visit to Kullu in 7th Century he saw an old Buddhist monastery there. He notes that Lord Buddha visited Kullu with his disciples to preach the tenets of Bauddham. In 629 BC Shong- Sen-Gompo ascended the throne of Tibet. Propagation of Bauddham in whole Himalayan region started from this period.
8. Interfaith cults and Dialogues
An interconnection between Hindu and Bauddha community in Lahul region results in social harmony through Devaparampara. Jamlu Devata (Jamdagni) is consider an incarnation of Hindu God and a spiritual soul of that almighty; but the followers of Jambal and jaambal (Buddhist communities) consider this devata as a Tibetan Devata and consider it as a Bauddha Devta. Similarly Ghepan and Ghepang deities are considered as a Tibetans Devata and Hindu consider them as brothers of Jamdagni.
In this region, veneration of Avalokteshwara, Manjushree, Budh and Five “Dhyani Buddha” offering is very common. . Ashwagosha a first century Buddhist poet has written Buddha-Charitam. Aswagosha admitted in his studies that the Vedic tradition was prevalent in Buddhist tradition and that Buddhist philosophy originated from Vedic philosophy
Viprashch Khyaatah Shrusheelavagbheeh Shrutwa Nimittaani Vicharya Samyak
Mukhe Prafulleh Chakitaishch Deepteh Meet Prasannam Nripamaitya Prochuh
Avam Nripah Pratyayeetaih Dwije Teh Ashwasitscharyabhinandatishcha
Sadhakamnishtham Vijahoh Manastah Praharsha Mevadhikamaruroha
Pritasch taibhyah Dwijasamtaibhyah Satkar Purva Pradadaudhnani
Bhuyadayam Bhumipatiryashayokto Yayaat Jarametya Vanani Cheti
Buddh charitam Sarga –1, Shloka 47, 48
9. Common Principles between Hindu and Bauddham
a) Result of One’s Deeds b) Incarnation c) Salvation d) Donation e) Sacrifice f) Non-Violence, Truthfulness
Similar Ways of Worship :
Buddh Tradition
Vedic Tradition
Vandan
Vandan
Worship(Pujan)
Worship (Pujan)
Sharangaman
SmaraNa
Papdeshna
Paadasevan
Pushpanumodana
Archan
Buddhdyeshna
Kirtan
Yaachanaa
Daasya
Bodhichitoutpad
Saankhya
Boddhiparinamanna
Atmanivedan
Earlier Buddhists were against of karmakanda but now they have adopted the same principle of Karmakanda like Hinduism [16].
10. Diversity of Oneness
Rajiv Malhotra, in his lecture on History Centrism and Inter Faith Relations at NIAS (IISc Banglore), noted: “No amount of commonality amongst religions could resolve the conflicts caused by non-negotiable grand-narratives of history. Even if the rituals of different religions become common, houses of worship become similar, or even common, dress codes becomes the same, and so forth, as long as they have non-negotiable and proprietary Grand Narratives of History, they would continue to clash.”[17]
When Inter-faith dialogues proclaim Commonality of morality and belief in one Supreme Being etc. they evade the point that History is the real cause of conflicts. [18]
Both Judaism and Islam, for example, are preoccupied with social order and cohesion (hence the privacy of the law), which is the main reason why the spiritual quest has been relatively ’marginalised ‘ or at least wrapped away into asoteric currents of Kabala and (Sunni) Sufism or subordinated to theological doctrine, as in the figure of shia Islam.[19]
APJ Abdul Kalam describes in his book Ignited Mind “ I realize that the central theme of any religion is spiritual well-being. Indeed it should be understood that the foundation of secularism in India has to be derived from spirituality.”[20] iv He added “ In India, the core culture goes beyond time. It precedes the arrival of Islam; it precedes the arrival of Christianity, The early Christians like the Syrian Christians of Kerala have retained their Indianness with admirable determination. Are they less Christians because their married woman wear the Mangalsutra or their menfolk wear the Dhoti in the Kerala style?” A. R. Rahman may be a Muslim but his voice echoes in the soul of all Indians, of whatever faith, when he sings Vande matram”. [21]
Duncan Forrester similarly said in his works on ‘Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo Saxon Protestant Missions in India’:“The Syrian Christian, like the Jews of Cochin and the Bene- Israel of Bombay, survived and indeed flourished because they accepted the social system within which they found themselves and observed its norms.” [22] They were allowed to live in peace and harmony in India for many centuries.[23]
It is when we accept India in all its splendid glory that, with a shared past as a base, we can look forward to a shared future of peace and prosperity, of creation and abundance. Our past is with us forever. It has to be nurtured in good faith, not destroyed in exercise of political one-upmanship. [24]
According to the late Sri Golwalkar (Sri Guruji) former chief of the RSS, religion need not be a compelling factor in determining the nationhood of the people. Religious unity was long considered to be a potent unifying force in Europe and all means were employed by many states to secure such unity among their inhabitants. To the RSS, it was not an indispensable factor in its concept of the ‘nation’. It was more a matter of conscience and must cease to colour the loyalties and outlook of the people about social and political matters. A common way of life rather than a common form of worship had been the most conspicuous feature of the Hindu national existence. The Hindu concept of unity or integration is harmony, certainly not uniformity. A man can be Hindu by nationality and at the same time be a sanatani, or an Arya Samaji, a Muslim, or a Christian, a Sikh, or a Buddhist. [25]
Iranian Prophet Zoroaster was born in 6th century BC. Zoroaster copied Veda copiously and sometime reversed its principles to impact on them an Iranian tinge by stamping them with the religious prestige of his own name. On the contrary, the veda had been composed centuries earlier; the Lord Budha and the Lord Mahavira of India were raising the lofty slogan of ahimsa and preaching peace, humanitarianism and universal friendship [26].
The pious Chinese Buddhist, Huan Tsang, noticed during his pilgrimage to India that Harsha regularly held a five year public feast known as ”quinquennium”. This was the occasion to distribute to the public alms what was over and above the needs of the State-treasury. The holy Chinese monk observed that large heaps were made of “gold, silver, coins, jewelery, fine fabrics and delicate brocades”. This was done in an open square surrounded by scores of pavilions, each having seating arrangements for one thousand persons. “Three days were given to religious exercises. On the fourth day, began the distribution. No religious bigotry or discrimination was exercised. Everybody was equal in receiving bounty. This was observed with complete sincerity. “ Ten thousand Buddhist monks were fed, and each received pearls, garments, flowers, perfumes, and one hundred pieces of gold. Then the Brahamins were given alms almost as abundant; then the Jains; then other sects. [27]
Sri Arbindoo reinforced a drive towards Legislative and Social Centralisation and uniformity.[28] He perceives the need of military unification, for war and understands the need of economic unity [29] He feelingly and proudly said, ”ours is the eternal land, the eternal people, the eternal religion whose strength, greatness, holiness may be over-clouded, but never even for a moment, utterly easy.[30]
11. Polyandry and polygamy
Social mores seen in forms of polyandry or polygamy should be no hindrance to spiritual quest.
In Himalaya the members of the joint family generally lived under one roof, partook of food that was cooked at one hearth, held property in common, participated in common family worship and were related to each other as some particular type of kindred.[31]
Joint marriage system was prevalent in the time of Ramayana. One person can have more than one wife and a women can have more than one husband. King Dasharatha had three Queens. Similarily in Mahaabhaarata Draupadi was married to the five Pandawas. Lord Krishna and Arjuna have more than one wife. The tradition can be seen in Kinnaur and Sirmaur Districts of Himachal Pradesh, where joint family system is prevalent today.[32]
The Encyclopaedia Britannica (1972) has listed some criteria in identifying a polyandry society as follows:
1.Children recognise more than one man as having the status of father
2.A women bears legitimate children to several different father in succession,
3.A legitimately married women regularly cohabit with several man, none of whom rate as father to her children, and
4.A single legitimate husband allows other man for sexual access to his wife
Polyandry as a cultural institution is still found in Indian Himalayas i.e., Ladakh, Kinaur, Lahul & Spiti, Kangra, Sirmaur in Western Himalayas, Jaunsar Bawar in Central Himalaya and Siyang district in Eastern Himalaya. Polyandry is also found in southern parts of India, among Nair people, who inhabit India’s Malabar Coast, where a woman marries several men of equal or superior rank.[33] Nucha Aquino notes that polyandry is fairly common in Tibet, Zanskar, Nepal, Sri Lanka and some regions of China (especially in Yunan), and in some subsaharan African and American communities [34]
Polyandry and polygamy can be seen very common among Hindus, Buddhists, and in Islam and Christianity. Prophet Mohammad was married to 12 women.
Mixed marriages among Hindu, Christian and Muslim are on the increase. Mixed marriages among Hindu, Sikh and Buddhists are very common. That there are several examples of mixed marriages among these communities reveals interfaith harmony. Will Hinduism survive the tide of inter-religious marriages? This is hot topic of discussion among Hindus. [35]
12. Universal Harmony
Buddhism denounces social distinction between man and women. Equality, humanity and compassion are the main features of Buddhism. Similarly Jainism places emphasis on non-violence, understanding and seeing oneness in living beings. Guru Nanak ‘s ideal and lofty thought are no different from those of other religious reformers. Guru Nanak’s teachings and liberal views influenced the Sikh community to request a Muslim Sufi, saint Mian Meer Shah to lay the foundation stone of the Golden Temple, the holiest shrine of the community.
A century ago that great reformer from India Swami Vivekananda addressed the world Parliament of religions in Chicago. We could possibly draw inspiration from what he said at the International conference: “ Do I wish that Christian would become a Hindu? God forbid. Do I wish that the Hindu or Buddhist would become a Christian? God forbid. The Christian is not to become a Hindu, or a Buddhist, nor Hindu or Buddhist is to become a Christian. But each religion must assimilate the spirit of the others and yet preserve it’s individuality and grow according to its own law of growth” [36]
Peoples of Indo-china, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Burma, and Thailand, Java, Sumatra, and Bali are influenced by Shaavite and vashnavite thought,. Trimurti Pujan –- Brahma Vishnu and Maheshwara--, and puja of Durga, Kali Parvati, Uma, and Vinayaka prevail even today.[37]
Conclusions
Why we are tied up in political boundaries not social boundaries? Why we are talking about commercial globalisation not social globalisation? Why not a common consensus: Jesus as 11th Incarnation of God and Prophet Mohammed as 12th?
Hindu worldview of life is harmony and positive fellowship. Dharma teaches harmony and universal acceptance. A Hindu does not dispute the divinity of Christ, but to be Christian one has to subordinate one’s conscience to the authority of this kind of Church. Christianity believes in Exclusivism and divides the world into believer and non-believer. Asia is a land of God. All the religions flourished on this land and all incarnations of god are born on the land of Asia.
The background of all the religions and panthas is Dharma but its followers change their meanings over time, and they bind themselves with the three divisive notions of religion: Conclusive, Exclusionary and Separative. The believers of all religions project that their faith and path is the only way to know God. They want to prove “there is no salvation outside them”. This is the major cause of conflicts between them. Hinduism is truly pluralistic; multi-faceted and accepts the faith and path of all religions and pantha to establish the communal harmony among them. Hence the objective of Hinduism means those spiritual principles through the living of which one attains perfection, illumination, God vision, and liberation. These spiritual principles are: truthfulness, purity, self-control, non-violence, forbearance, detachment, equality, straightforwardness, beauty, regard for others, compassion, love of God, and longing for spiritual enlightenment.
References:-
[1] Sankrant Sanu ‘Need I belong to only one religion? - Dharma and Religious identity’ Feb 14, 2003, www.sulekha.com
[2] Sashi Shekhar Sharma, ‘Oh My God’, Rupa Publication, page –35.
[3] Prof Arivind Shrma Professor of McHill University Montreal, An Indic Contribution Towards an Understanding of the Word “Religion” and the Concept of Religious Freedom
[4] Mahrishi Gulabrao Maharaj ‘The Perfect Harmony’ page – 22
[5] Viveka Nanda Sahitya Vol –IX, Adwait Ashram, 1989, Page-159
[6] Rigveda –Mandala 5, Sukta 60, Mantra-5
[7] http://www.hinduofuniverse.com/index.html
[8] Paper presented by DR. Giriraj Shash On Spiritual value for Universal Integration and Peace at New Delhi, Sep1995
[9] Susan Vishwanathan, ‘Christianity of Kerala’, preface –IX
[10] ‘Swagat’ Indian Airlines, July 2003 Page – 50
[11] DR. Anad Nayak, Hindu-Christian Inter-religious Dialog in India, A paper presented at University of Pondicherry, Dec-2003.
[12] Deepak Chopra, ‘How to Know God’ page – 156
[13] DR. Ram Krishan Sharma, ‘Philosophy’ New York 1977 page – 46
[14] Kanayan Lala M. Talreja, ‘Holy Vedas and Holy Bible’, page – 38
[15] Yajurveda Chapter 32. 8
[16] DR. Hari Prasad Adhikari, ‘Himnad Smarika’, Himalaya Parivar Delhi, March-2004, Vol-5, Page –13, 14
[17] Sangeeta Manon, R narsimha, BV Sreekanta, Anindya Sinha, ‘Science and Beyond’, National Institute of advance Studies., 2004 page-70,71
[18] Ibid page – 71
[19] Ibid page – 61
[20] APJ Abdul Kalam, ‘Ignited Mind’, Penguin Press, 2002, Page –114
[21] Ibid page –115
[22] Duncan Forester, ‘Caste and Christianity’: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo Saxon Protestant Missions in India, London, Curzon Press, 1979, Page – 100
[23] Ashok V. Chowgule, ‘Christianity in India the Hindutva Perspective’, Hindu Vivek Kendra, 1999 Page-15
[24] APJ Abdul Kalam, Ignited Mind, Penguin Press, 2002, Page –116
[25] Ibid Page – 99
[26] Anwar Shaikh, ‘The Vedic Civilisation’, Principality Publishers, Cardiff UK, 2003, Page – 43
[27] Anwar Shaikh, ‘The Vedic Civilisation’, Principality Publishers, Cardiff UK, 2003, Page –195
[28] Sri Arbindoo, ‘The Human Cycle, The Human Unity, War and Self Determination’ Vol –IX, Page 602
[29] Ibid page –647
[30] G.M. Jagtiani, ‘Make Hinduism India’s State Religion’, Mumbai, 1998 Page-12
[31] Cf. Karve, Iravati, ‘Kinship organisation in India’, page- 10.
[32] DR Munish Kumar Raha, ‘SOMSI’, Art, Language, and Culture Academy, Shimla, Year 21, Vol-76-77, June-Sep 95, Page – 50,51
[33] http://small-world.elaguna.net/articles/polyandry.htm
[34] http://www.elresearch.com/Polyandry
[35] Ajit Adhopia, ‘Mixing it up with Cross-Cultural marriages’, http://www.boloji.com/ November 29, 2003
[36] ‘Viswa joythi, A Spiritual Journey’ Vol-I, Sarwartha Sankshema Samithi, 1995, Page –23, 24‘Himnad Smarika’, Himalaya Parivar Delhi, Dec-2004, Page –12, 13
[s1]Abstract Title should be 12 size and Arial in the center of the page.
Prashant Bhardwaj
Rohru-Shimla Himachal Pradesh , India.
Email: bhardwaj_p123@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT[s1]
Hindu approach is clearly pluralistic, premised on equality of devotional principles, pantheistic, accommodative, tolerant and respectful of individual preferences and choices. Hindu approach to spiritual quests does not discriminate on the basis of class, colour, religion, caste, or gender. Hindu is truly multi-faceted and accepts the faiths and paths (called pantha) of all religions. This approach establishes communal harmony among panthas. Hindu tradition has regarded itself as a happy family of many Panthas and Sampradaayaas, which are pilgrimages in distinct way to realise a single Divine goal.
The recognition that multiple legitimate paths exist, by the Hindu approach, precludes the kinds of religious conflicts that have distinguished Abrahamic religions. While the "Panthas" followed different enlightened teachers and had different favored expressions (or “IshTa-devataas”) to relate with Reality (including agnostic and atheistic schools) these doctrinal disputes were more often dialogues in a process of deepening the understanding of Truth, than in the establishment of political hegemony. To assure that these doctrinal differences stayed within the limits of civil discourse, the Indian sages enunciated a vital corollary to the principle of One Truth most clearly:
“Sarva Dharma Samabhaava, Sarva Panth Sama-Aadara”
(Each one's dharma is of equal value, all paths are worthy of equal respect)
Keywords: Religious Harmony, Tolerance, Spiritual Enlightenment
Index Words: Nonvilance, Compassion, Humanity, Religion, Sampradaaya, Pantha
1. INTRODUCTION
Hinduism, we are told, is not a religion at all, but a way of life. In a way this is quite true. According to the tenets of Hinduism, life and religion are inseparable. Religion is every where, dominating and regulating every aspect of human life, infusing it with divine presence and making life more meaningful and purposeful to its followers.
In the Hindu, dharmic approach, conquests, conversions or continued conflicts are not the only options in an encounter with a new group of people or civilization. A dialogue of understanding is also a possibility. Thus we find in the dharmic history of India a multiplicity of dialogues within and between different individuals and panthas [1].
Hence the objective of Hindu approach is that living by one’s spiritual principles, one attains perfection, illumination, God vision, and liberation. Some of these spiritual principles are: truthfulness, purity, self-control, non-violence, forbearance, detachment, equality, straightforwardness, beauty, concern for others, compassion, love of God, and longing for spiritual enlightenment.
Though there are some core beliefs common to virtually all Hindus, there really is no "Hindu orthodoxy"--no hard and fast dogma that all Hindus must believe in. It's actually a family of gradually developing beliefs and practices.
There are no specifically laid out rules constricting a person's eating/drinking habits, or clothing style or something like that. In fact, it is on a much higher platform, where such petty things are irrelevant. It deals with the spiritual aspects of trying to understand God and to approach Him through many varied means (principal of which is love). As a natural fallout, it also shows how to lead a meaningful life full of bliss, peace and love.
Dharma sustains the society and maintains social order. Dharma in the Sanatan world of discourse was the perception of a set of board principles, which men and women intended to follow in the course of their journey through life. Dharma as the fundamental principle of conduct and as a way of life reflects in all stages and occupations of human existence by suggesting principles suited for every stage and station in life [2]. Dharma is not a Sanskrit equivalent of the English ‘religion’.
Prof. Arvind Sharma points out that the word ‘religion’ as used in the standard form carries three connotations[3]: -
1.Conclusive
2.Exclusionary and
3.Separative
But Indian concept of Dharma is very different from the notion of religion. These three notions give Abrahimic religions a hard-edged identity. Religions as a concept of monotheistic people says, “there is one ‘Ishwara’ and first join me on my path otherwise there is no salvation and you will go to Hell”.[4]
Who were the ancestors of the people of the world? Christianity is no more 2000 years old and Islam is no more 1500 years old. So what were we before 2000 years? What cults were opted by the people before 2000 years ago? We have to understand Aryan and Vedic civilisation.
Dharma is a composite of many analogous spiritual ways of many panthas and religiona; dharma establishes interconnectivity and develops harmonious relationships. It is like one’s ability to produce same musical notes using different instruments. Every religion is just like a musical instrument. Every instrument can produce Sa, Re, Gaa, Maa, Paa, Dha, ni, Sa. But can’t produce the same musical experience. Your way of worship would be different, your transmission media while communicating with God might be different, but you are going to convey the same message; the only difference is in your way of expression. Spiritual language is only one, but languages of different nations may be different[5]. Sanskrit stands out among all because of its technical and powerful way of expression based on Raga, Alankara, and Chandaa. Each Religion has atleast one authentic Religious book. Those who didn’t have such a literature have disappeared from the earth, for example, Egyptian religion. Literature is the strength of every religion; some times, it is the cause of conflicts also, because the followers of these religions believe that there religious book alone is “Brahmavakya” (word of God) and that other religions are false. Fanatic/ Dogmatic and Liberal are two varieties of persons seen in every religion.
2. Pluralism
Hindu believes in pluralism – that is, there are multiple paths to salvation and one chooses from the paths to salvation. Some times, pluralism in Hinduism seems like universalism in west. . A Hindu deity (god or goddess; note small g) represents a particular aspect of the Supreme Being. For example, Saraswati represents the learning and knowledge aspect of the Supreme Being. Thus, if a Hindu wants to pray for acquiring knowledge and understanding, he prays to Saraswati. Just as sunlight cannot have a separate and independent existence from the sun itself, a Hindu deity does not have a separate and independent existence from the Supreme Being. Thus, Hindu worship of deities is monotheistic pantheism and not simple polytheism. A Hindu is polytheistic and also monotheistic like Christianity and Islam. Buddhists of Himalayan region are polytheistic. Buddhist pray to Hindu deities and gods in the same manner as they venerate the Buddha. Hindu shows equal respect and faith to all. Freedom of equality and religion are fundamental rights in India since remote past. Equality is found incorporated in the Rigveda, the most ancient of the Vedas and also in the Atharvaveda.:
Ajeyeshthaso Akanishthas aite
Sam Brataro Wabridhooh Sobhagya [6]
Rigveda –Mandal 5, Sukta 60, Mantra-5
No one is superior or inferior. All are brothers. All should strive for the interest of all and should progress collectively.
3. How does Hinduism differ from other religions?
Hinduism differs from other organized religions in the following aspects:
•It is not based upon a particular founder.
•It is not based upon a particular book.
•A central institution or authority such as a church or an association does not control it.
•It is not averse to examine and assimilate fundamentally diverse thoughts and beliefs into its system.
•It accepts other religions as various paths to salvation and does not favor organized attempts to convert people.
•It has been evolving continuously, through internal reforms and as a reaction to threats and challenges.
Hindu religion is often labelled as a religion of 330 million gods. This misunderstanding arises when people fail to grasp the symbolism of the Hindu pantheon. According to the Hindu scriptures, living beings are not apart from God, since He lives in each and every one of them in the form of atman (BG 10.39). Thus each living being is a unique manifestation of God. In ancient times it was believed that there were 330 million living beings. This gave rise to the idea of 330 million deities or gods. Actually, this vast number of gods could not possibly have been worshipped, since 330 million names could not have been designed for them. The number 330 million was simply used to give a symbolic expression to the fundamental Hindu doctrine that God lives in the hearts of all living beings. [7]
4. Hindu vis-à-vis Panthas (Sikh)
In course of time a number of paths of worship – Panthas or sects came into existence in India. But they all followed Dharma which began to be describes as Manava Dharma because it was equally applicable to all human beings. Hindu dharma was first conceived by Hindus, the people of Hindustan. It provided the common link between all Panthas and prevented them from becoming exclusive or mutually antagonistic religions like Islam and Christianity. Hindu tradition has regarded itself as a happy family of many Panthas and Sampardayas that travel in mutual harmony in their own distinct way towards a single Divine goal. Travelers of path do not interfere with the travelers of other paths; on the contrary, they respect them as fellow pilgrims undertaking the same spiritual journey. Sikh, Jaina, Bauddha are the members of the same family on the path of Hinduism. Guru Gobind singh the founder of Khalsa Pantha, explains beautifully the link between Panthas or paths of worship and Dharma in the following words: -
‘Sakal Jagat mein Khalsa Panth Jage
Jage Dharma Hindu, Sakal Bhand Raje’
“ Let Khalsa Panth triumph in the world so that Hindu Dharma may prevail, and the misconduct may vanish”.
In an article published in “The Tribune April 22, 1990,Page-5, titled “Glory of Sikh psyche Guru Arjun Dev, Personification of Humanity” SS Bhatti writes about the magnificent contribution of Guru Arjun Dev.: “Guru Arjun Dev incorporated in the Adi Granth compositions of Muslim Sufis (mystics) like Sheikh Farid and Bhikam, along with those of the Bhakts (saints), the so called shudras such as Kabir, the weaver; Ravidas, the cobbler; Sain, the barber, and Sadhna, the butcher. Altogether sixteen such Bhaktas and suffis have been represented in the Holy Book (Guru Granth Sahib).”
Sikh thought was spread in Punjab and other parts of the western region of Hindustan, in the beginning of 15th century, by its first Guru Nanak Dev. Sikh Guru were concerned with the growing Islamisation and Muslim rule in this country. Guru Nanak considered God as Nirguna and Nirakara (without form). Guru Gobind Singh founded Khalsa Pantha (1699) in Punjab and started a Bhakti movement. Prior to him the saint had only sung songs in praise of God and chosen the peaceful path of routine family life, or of wandering monks. But Guru Gobind Singh’s message was that of Bhakti in action. He wielded the swords of Miri and Piri and sacrificed his own life and that of his sons to defend Hindu Dharma. His father Guru Teg Bahadur laid down his life to save the Kashmiri Pandits from Muslim persecution
5. Major Principles Of Sikhism
1.Believe in one almighty God
2.Meditate on God and recite his name for every possible second
3.Treat and consider all human races equal, no one is superior or inferior
4.Do not discriminate on the basis of class, colour, religion, caste, or gender.
5.Give women equal status and right.
6.Treat rich and poor with same respect
7.Not to cut hair, not to smoke, not to drink alcohol and say ‘no’ to drugs
8.Not to believe in superstition, witchcraft or black magic
Sikhism helps one to devote his life to God and attain salvation analogous to Hindus. They hold the principles in common with Hindus such as: -
1.Devotional attitude ( Puja, budhi) and fear.
2.Establishing a loving relationship with God
3.Merger and Unification with God, to become one with God.
Sikh Festivals: -All the major festivals, customs, rituals of Sikh are comparable to the Hindu’s. They celebrate all the festivals of Hindus like Baisakhi, Holi, Lohri, Deepawali, and Dashera and Guru Parva. Hindu people participate in their festivals like Gur Parva and pay respect to the Sikh gurus. Hindu and Sikh have common customs, rituals, culture and Sanskaara.
6. Christianity in India
There is no dispute that Asia has always been the land of Dharma. All the religions of the world including Islam, Judaism, Christianity, Bauddha, Jaina and many other ‘Panthas’ first sprouted and flourished on the Asian land.
It is the considered view of Dr. Giriraj Shah and many scholars have suggested that the introduction of Christianity dates back to those days when Jesus Christ visited India in pursuit of spiritual education. The authenticity of this statement is doubted; however, it certainly goes to show that Christianity had absorbed some spiritual background from India. [8]
The apostle St. Thomas is said to have first brought Christianity to Indian shore at Kodungallore (formerly Cranganore) in 52AD.[9] That makes Christianity in Kerala as old as in Rome, if not older. [10] The first Christians of Indian origin who came mostly from certain Hindu castes of Kerala, fostered and continued the eastern tradition of Christianity as was developed in Antioch and its neighboring regions in the so called Asia Minor. [11]
Deepak Chopra describes: “In the third century we are told that … Christianity was not recognized as official religion but seen as a cult, which could be prosecuted under the law (Oddly it was not the worship of Jesus Christ that offended the courts but the fact that Christianity was too new to be lawful)”.[12]
The theology of Christianity believes in the eternity of spirit. After the crucifixion, Jesus Christ resurrected. In the Bhagavad-Gita, Krishna says to Arjuna that one who thinks that he is dead when his body is dead does not know anything because the atman is perpetual. The atman comes into form again. Like the Bible, the Upnishads tell of God in the beginning creating men and women with his will to create. Like the Bible Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita give an explanation of the truths of life. Like the Bible the Purana literature tells of the birth of Krishna. The Birth of Krishna is not different from the birth of Jesus Christ.. Krishna in one interpretation is the God who will remove the sins of creatures and of the world. Krishna himself says in the Bhagavad-Gita that his incarnation in the world is to remove the sins and restore righteousness. His birth in that way was a big event on the earth and was anticipated by the people even before his birth.[13]
Yajurveda admonishes the same thing. [14]
Yatra Vishwam Bhawatyaik Neerham [15]
Christian Virtues of love and compassion are universal and not confined to Christianity only. Further the Lord’s Prayer says: Forgive us our trespasses as we forgive these that trespass against us. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from all evil”.
7. Hindu- Buddhist harmony (a special reference in Himalaya)
Roots of Buddhist Tradition: Inscriptions found at Tabo (Himachal), Kalsi, (Utranchal), Ambala, and Jalandhar reveal that Buddhist tradition influenced people living in the inner core of Himalaya and other adjoining areas of Himalaya. According to Huen-Tsang, during his visit to Kullu in 7th Century he saw an old Buddhist monastery there. He notes that Lord Buddha visited Kullu with his disciples to preach the tenets of Bauddham. In 629 BC Shong- Sen-Gompo ascended the throne of Tibet. Propagation of Bauddham in whole Himalayan region started from this period.
8. Interfaith cults and Dialogues
An interconnection between Hindu and Bauddha community in Lahul region results in social harmony through Devaparampara. Jamlu Devata (Jamdagni) is consider an incarnation of Hindu God and a spiritual soul of that almighty; but the followers of Jambal and jaambal (Buddhist communities) consider this devata as a Tibetan Devata and consider it as a Bauddha Devta. Similarly Ghepan and Ghepang deities are considered as a Tibetans Devata and Hindu consider them as brothers of Jamdagni.
In this region, veneration of Avalokteshwara, Manjushree, Budh and Five “Dhyani Buddha” offering is very common. . Ashwagosha a first century Buddhist poet has written Buddha-Charitam. Aswagosha admitted in his studies that the Vedic tradition was prevalent in Buddhist tradition and that Buddhist philosophy originated from Vedic philosophy
Viprashch Khyaatah Shrusheelavagbheeh Shrutwa Nimittaani Vicharya Samyak
Mukhe Prafulleh Chakitaishch Deepteh Meet Prasannam Nripamaitya Prochuh
Avam Nripah Pratyayeetaih Dwije Teh Ashwasitscharyabhinandatishcha
Sadhakamnishtham Vijahoh Manastah Praharsha Mevadhikamaruroha
Pritasch taibhyah Dwijasamtaibhyah Satkar Purva Pradadaudhnani
Bhuyadayam Bhumipatiryashayokto Yayaat Jarametya Vanani Cheti
Buddh charitam Sarga –1, Shloka 47, 48
9. Common Principles between Hindu and Bauddham
a) Result of One’s Deeds b) Incarnation c) Salvation d) Donation e) Sacrifice f) Non-Violence, Truthfulness
Similar Ways of Worship :
Buddh Tradition
Vedic Tradition
Vandan
Vandan
Worship(Pujan)
Worship (Pujan)
Sharangaman
SmaraNa
Papdeshna
Paadasevan
Pushpanumodana
Archan
Buddhdyeshna
Kirtan
Yaachanaa
Daasya
Bodhichitoutpad
Saankhya
Boddhiparinamanna
Atmanivedan
Earlier Buddhists were against of karmakanda but now they have adopted the same principle of Karmakanda like Hinduism [16].
10. Diversity of Oneness
Rajiv Malhotra, in his lecture on History Centrism and Inter Faith Relations at NIAS (IISc Banglore), noted: “No amount of commonality amongst religions could resolve the conflicts caused by non-negotiable grand-narratives of history. Even if the rituals of different religions become common, houses of worship become similar, or even common, dress codes becomes the same, and so forth, as long as they have non-negotiable and proprietary Grand Narratives of History, they would continue to clash.”[17]
When Inter-faith dialogues proclaim Commonality of morality and belief in one Supreme Being etc. they evade the point that History is the real cause of conflicts. [18]
Both Judaism and Islam, for example, are preoccupied with social order and cohesion (hence the privacy of the law), which is the main reason why the spiritual quest has been relatively ’marginalised ‘ or at least wrapped away into asoteric currents of Kabala and (Sunni) Sufism or subordinated to theological doctrine, as in the figure of shia Islam.[19]
APJ Abdul Kalam describes in his book Ignited Mind “ I realize that the central theme of any religion is spiritual well-being. Indeed it should be understood that the foundation of secularism in India has to be derived from spirituality.”[20] iv He added “ In India, the core culture goes beyond time. It precedes the arrival of Islam; it precedes the arrival of Christianity, The early Christians like the Syrian Christians of Kerala have retained their Indianness with admirable determination. Are they less Christians because their married woman wear the Mangalsutra or their menfolk wear the Dhoti in the Kerala style?” A. R. Rahman may be a Muslim but his voice echoes in the soul of all Indians, of whatever faith, when he sings Vande matram”. [21]
Duncan Forrester similarly said in his works on ‘Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo Saxon Protestant Missions in India’:“The Syrian Christian, like the Jews of Cochin and the Bene- Israel of Bombay, survived and indeed flourished because they accepted the social system within which they found themselves and observed its norms.” [22] They were allowed to live in peace and harmony in India for many centuries.[23]
It is when we accept India in all its splendid glory that, with a shared past as a base, we can look forward to a shared future of peace and prosperity, of creation and abundance. Our past is with us forever. It has to be nurtured in good faith, not destroyed in exercise of political one-upmanship. [24]
According to the late Sri Golwalkar (Sri Guruji) former chief of the RSS, religion need not be a compelling factor in determining the nationhood of the people. Religious unity was long considered to be a potent unifying force in Europe and all means were employed by many states to secure such unity among their inhabitants. To the RSS, it was not an indispensable factor in its concept of the ‘nation’. It was more a matter of conscience and must cease to colour the loyalties and outlook of the people about social and political matters. A common way of life rather than a common form of worship had been the most conspicuous feature of the Hindu national existence. The Hindu concept of unity or integration is harmony, certainly not uniformity. A man can be Hindu by nationality and at the same time be a sanatani, or an Arya Samaji, a Muslim, or a Christian, a Sikh, or a Buddhist. [25]
Iranian Prophet Zoroaster was born in 6th century BC. Zoroaster copied Veda copiously and sometime reversed its principles to impact on them an Iranian tinge by stamping them with the religious prestige of his own name. On the contrary, the veda had been composed centuries earlier; the Lord Budha and the Lord Mahavira of India were raising the lofty slogan of ahimsa and preaching peace, humanitarianism and universal friendship [26].
The pious Chinese Buddhist, Huan Tsang, noticed during his pilgrimage to India that Harsha regularly held a five year public feast known as ”quinquennium”. This was the occasion to distribute to the public alms what was over and above the needs of the State-treasury. The holy Chinese monk observed that large heaps were made of “gold, silver, coins, jewelery, fine fabrics and delicate brocades”. This was done in an open square surrounded by scores of pavilions, each having seating arrangements for one thousand persons. “Three days were given to religious exercises. On the fourth day, began the distribution. No religious bigotry or discrimination was exercised. Everybody was equal in receiving bounty. This was observed with complete sincerity. “ Ten thousand Buddhist monks were fed, and each received pearls, garments, flowers, perfumes, and one hundred pieces of gold. Then the Brahamins were given alms almost as abundant; then the Jains; then other sects. [27]
Sri Arbindoo reinforced a drive towards Legislative and Social Centralisation and uniformity.[28] He perceives the need of military unification, for war and understands the need of economic unity [29] He feelingly and proudly said, ”ours is the eternal land, the eternal people, the eternal religion whose strength, greatness, holiness may be over-clouded, but never even for a moment, utterly easy.[30]
11. Polyandry and polygamy
Social mores seen in forms of polyandry or polygamy should be no hindrance to spiritual quest.
In Himalaya the members of the joint family generally lived under one roof, partook of food that was cooked at one hearth, held property in common, participated in common family worship and were related to each other as some particular type of kindred.[31]
Joint marriage system was prevalent in the time of Ramayana. One person can have more than one wife and a women can have more than one husband. King Dasharatha had three Queens. Similarily in Mahaabhaarata Draupadi was married to the five Pandawas. Lord Krishna and Arjuna have more than one wife. The tradition can be seen in Kinnaur and Sirmaur Districts of Himachal Pradesh, where joint family system is prevalent today.[32]
The Encyclopaedia Britannica (1972) has listed some criteria in identifying a polyandry society as follows:
1.Children recognise more than one man as having the status of father
2.A women bears legitimate children to several different father in succession,
3.A legitimately married women regularly cohabit with several man, none of whom rate as father to her children, and
4.A single legitimate husband allows other man for sexual access to his wife
Polyandry as a cultural institution is still found in Indian Himalayas i.e., Ladakh, Kinaur, Lahul & Spiti, Kangra, Sirmaur in Western Himalayas, Jaunsar Bawar in Central Himalaya and Siyang district in Eastern Himalaya. Polyandry is also found in southern parts of India, among Nair people, who inhabit India’s Malabar Coast, where a woman marries several men of equal or superior rank.[33] Nucha Aquino notes that polyandry is fairly common in Tibet, Zanskar, Nepal, Sri Lanka and some regions of China (especially in Yunan), and in some subsaharan African and American communities [34]
Polyandry and polygamy can be seen very common among Hindus, Buddhists, and in Islam and Christianity. Prophet Mohammad was married to 12 women.
Mixed marriages among Hindu, Christian and Muslim are on the increase. Mixed marriages among Hindu, Sikh and Buddhists are very common. That there are several examples of mixed marriages among these communities reveals interfaith harmony. Will Hinduism survive the tide of inter-religious marriages? This is hot topic of discussion among Hindus. [35]
12. Universal Harmony
Buddhism denounces social distinction between man and women. Equality, humanity and compassion are the main features of Buddhism. Similarly Jainism places emphasis on non-violence, understanding and seeing oneness in living beings. Guru Nanak ‘s ideal and lofty thought are no different from those of other religious reformers. Guru Nanak’s teachings and liberal views influenced the Sikh community to request a Muslim Sufi, saint Mian Meer Shah to lay the foundation stone of the Golden Temple, the holiest shrine of the community.
A century ago that great reformer from India Swami Vivekananda addressed the world Parliament of religions in Chicago. We could possibly draw inspiration from what he said at the International conference: “ Do I wish that Christian would become a Hindu? God forbid. Do I wish that the Hindu or Buddhist would become a Christian? God forbid. The Christian is not to become a Hindu, or a Buddhist, nor Hindu or Buddhist is to become a Christian. But each religion must assimilate the spirit of the others and yet preserve it’s individuality and grow according to its own law of growth” [36]
Peoples of Indo-china, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Burma, and Thailand, Java, Sumatra, and Bali are influenced by Shaavite and vashnavite thought,. Trimurti Pujan –- Brahma Vishnu and Maheshwara--, and puja of Durga, Kali Parvati, Uma, and Vinayaka prevail even today.[37]
Conclusions
Why we are tied up in political boundaries not social boundaries? Why we are talking about commercial globalisation not social globalisation? Why not a common consensus: Jesus as 11th Incarnation of God and Prophet Mohammed as 12th?
Hindu worldview of life is harmony and positive fellowship. Dharma teaches harmony and universal acceptance. A Hindu does not dispute the divinity of Christ, but to be Christian one has to subordinate one’s conscience to the authority of this kind of Church. Christianity believes in Exclusivism and divides the world into believer and non-believer. Asia is a land of God. All the religions flourished on this land and all incarnations of god are born on the land of Asia.
The background of all the religions and panthas is Dharma but its followers change their meanings over time, and they bind themselves with the three divisive notions of religion: Conclusive, Exclusionary and Separative. The believers of all religions project that their faith and path is the only way to know God. They want to prove “there is no salvation outside them”. This is the major cause of conflicts between them. Hinduism is truly pluralistic; multi-faceted and accepts the faith and path of all religions and pantha to establish the communal harmony among them. Hence the objective of Hinduism means those spiritual principles through the living of which one attains perfection, illumination, God vision, and liberation. These spiritual principles are: truthfulness, purity, self-control, non-violence, forbearance, detachment, equality, straightforwardness, beauty, regard for others, compassion, love of God, and longing for spiritual enlightenment.
References:-
[1] Sankrant Sanu ‘Need I belong to only one religion? - Dharma and Religious identity’ Feb 14, 2003, www.sulekha.com
[2] Sashi Shekhar Sharma, ‘Oh My God’, Rupa Publication, page –35.
[3] Prof Arivind Shrma Professor of McHill University Montreal, An Indic Contribution Towards an Understanding of the Word “Religion” and the Concept of Religious Freedom
[4] Mahrishi Gulabrao Maharaj ‘The Perfect Harmony’ page – 22
[5] Viveka Nanda Sahitya Vol –IX, Adwait Ashram, 1989, Page-159
[6] Rigveda –Mandala 5, Sukta 60, Mantra-5
[7] http://www.hinduofuniverse.com/index.html
[8] Paper presented by DR. Giriraj Shash On Spiritual value for Universal Integration and Peace at New Delhi, Sep1995
[9] Susan Vishwanathan, ‘Christianity of Kerala’, preface –IX
[10] ‘Swagat’ Indian Airlines, July 2003 Page – 50
[11] DR. Anad Nayak, Hindu-Christian Inter-religious Dialog in India, A paper presented at University of Pondicherry, Dec-2003.
[12] Deepak Chopra, ‘How to Know God’ page – 156
[13] DR. Ram Krishan Sharma, ‘Philosophy’ New York 1977 page – 46
[14] Kanayan Lala M. Talreja, ‘Holy Vedas and Holy Bible’, page – 38
[15] Yajurveda Chapter 32. 8
[16] DR. Hari Prasad Adhikari, ‘Himnad Smarika’, Himalaya Parivar Delhi, March-2004, Vol-5, Page –13, 14
[17] Sangeeta Manon, R narsimha, BV Sreekanta, Anindya Sinha, ‘Science and Beyond’, National Institute of advance Studies., 2004 page-70,71
[18] Ibid page – 71
[19] Ibid page – 61
[20] APJ Abdul Kalam, ‘Ignited Mind’, Penguin Press, 2002, Page –114
[21] Ibid page –115
[22] Duncan Forester, ‘Caste and Christianity’: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo Saxon Protestant Missions in India, London, Curzon Press, 1979, Page – 100
[23] Ashok V. Chowgule, ‘Christianity in India the Hindutva Perspective’, Hindu Vivek Kendra, 1999 Page-15
[24] APJ Abdul Kalam, Ignited Mind, Penguin Press, 2002, Page –116
[25] Ibid Page – 99
[26] Anwar Shaikh, ‘The Vedic Civilisation’, Principality Publishers, Cardiff UK, 2003, Page – 43
[27] Anwar Shaikh, ‘The Vedic Civilisation’, Principality Publishers, Cardiff UK, 2003, Page –195
[28] Sri Arbindoo, ‘The Human Cycle, The Human Unity, War and Self Determination’ Vol –IX, Page 602
[29] Ibid page –647
[30] G.M. Jagtiani, ‘Make Hinduism India’s State Religion’, Mumbai, 1998 Page-12
[31] Cf. Karve, Iravati, ‘Kinship organisation in India’, page- 10.
[32] DR Munish Kumar Raha, ‘SOMSI’, Art, Language, and Culture Academy, Shimla, Year 21, Vol-76-77, June-Sep 95, Page – 50,51
[33] http://small-world.elaguna.net/articles/polyandry.htm
[34] http://www.elresearch.com/Polyandry
[35] Ajit Adhopia, ‘Mixing it up with Cross-Cultural marriages’, http://www.boloji.com/ November 29, 2003
[36] ‘Viswa joythi, A Spiritual Journey’ Vol-I, Sarwartha Sankshema Samithi, 1995, Page –23, 24‘Himnad Smarika’, Himalaya Parivar Delhi, Dec-2004, Page –12, 13
[s1]Abstract Title should be 12 size and Arial in the center of the page.
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